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Yoido Full Gospel Church, Seoul

The practice of Christianity in Korea has a relatively short history, but after a difficult beginning it has seen significant growth and success. The deeply-rooted traditional religions of Buddhism, Shamanism and Confucianism held strong for many centuries and have been challenged by Christianity in a meaningful way only since 1784 when the first Catholic prayer-house was established in Korea. Protestantism followed in 1884, but growth of both sects was slow until the middle of the twentieth century. Since then, a number of factors have encouraged the growth of Christianity in Korean culture, and its growth since the 1960s has been significant enough that the number of adherents to Christianity surpassed that of adherents to the aforementioned traditional religions. The Korean church has not been entirely free of controversy, but overall is still strong, despite recent trends of decline among Korean youth.1

Contents

Size and cultural significance

Prior to the Korean War of 1950–1953, two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most subsequently fled to the South.[1] It is not known how many Christians remain in North Korea today, and there is some confusion about the exact number in South Korea as well. It is known that by the end of the 1960s, there were barely one million Protestants in South Korea, but during the "Conversion Boom" period ending in the 1980s, the number of Protestants increased faster than in any other country [2][3]. According to the CIA's World Factbook, Christians and Buddhists today each comprise 26% of the population of South Korea[4], while a Protestant research group's Religious Yearbook 1995 puts the figure at over 40% [5]. Other sources claim that about 49% of the population are Christians [6]. The discrepancies arise because a large proportion of the population does not maintain official membership in a specific religion, regardless of the group in which they are active.

In 2005, one source showed that about 18% of the population of South Korea professed to be Protestants and around 10% called themselves Roman Catholics 2, the second highest percentages in Asia. Surveys have shown that South Korean Christians are very active in their religion, quite often exceeding their American counterparts in frequency of attendance at group worship services.3 Seoul contains eleven of the world's twelve largest Christian congregations. South Korea also provides the world's second largest number of Christian missionaries, surpassed only by the United States. South Korean missionaries are particularly prevalent in 10/40 Window nations that are hostile to Westerners. In 2000, there were 10,646 Protestant South Korean missionaries in 156 countries, along with an undisclosed number of Catholic missionaries. A number of South Korean Christians, including David Yonggi Cho (조용기), senior pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church, have attained worldwide prominence.

Early struggles: 1593-1784

Christianity was established on Korean soil only after nearly two centuries of failed efforts, and another two centuries passed before Christianity became numerically significant. The first known Christian in Korea was Konishi Yukinaga, who was one of the commanders of the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 1590s. He took a Korean girl later known as Julia Ota-a (ジュリアおたあ) back to Japan with him and she later became one of the first Korean Christians.4 Father Gregorious de Cespedes, a Jesuit priest, visited Konishi in Korea in 1593 to work among Japanese expatriates, but he was not permitted to proselytize Koreans.[7]

A decade later, however, the Korean diplomat Yi Gwang-jeong (이광정) returned from Beijing carrying a world atlas and several theological books written by Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary to China.[8] He began disseminating the information in his books and from these beginnings the first real seeds of Christianity were sown. The seeds didn't germinate immediately though. Christianity faltered along in Korea over the following two centuries before the Catholic church was finally able to gain a foothold in 1784. Even after this time Korean Christians dealt with persecution and hardship, but persecution has been shown historically to strengthen the faith of believers and increase the influence of the church.5 Many were martyred, the most famous of whom was Andrew Kim Taegon, who was beheaded in 1846 at the age of 25 for his practice of a foreign religion. Christianity continued to gain adherents despite the persecution, and in 1884 Henry Appenzeller, a Methodist, and Horace Underwood, a Presbyterian, both from the United States, introduced Protestantism to Korea.[9]

Factors encouraging the growth of Christianity

Academic sympathy: The Silhak school

Matteo Ricci's books provoked immediate academic controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea, and academics remained critical for many years. Early in the seventeenth century, Yi Su-gwang, a court scholar, and Yu Mong-in (유몽인), a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical commentaries on Ricci's works, and over the next two centuries academic criticism of Christian beliefs continued unabated.

Some scholars, however, were more sympathetic to Christianity. Members of the Silhak (실학; "practical learning") school believed in social structure based on merit rather than birth (see classism), and were therefore often bitterly opposed by the mainstream academic establishment. Silhak scholars saw Christianity as an ideological basis for their beliefs and were therefore attracted to what they saw as the egalitarian values of Christianity.[10] Thus, when Christianity was finally established in Korea, there was already a substantial body of educated opinion sympathetic to it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s.[11] An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school.[12] This philosophical sympathy for Christianity among the educated elite greatly facilitated its growth in Korea.

Lay leadership

Largely as a result of the influence of the Silhak school, Christianity in Korea began as an indigenous lay movement rather than being imposed by a foreign ecclesiastical hierarchy. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at Pyongyang by Yi Sung-hun, a diplomat who had been baptized in Beijing.[13] In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests.[14] Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of lay-priests violated Canon Law, Christianity was introduced into Korea by indigenous lay-workers, not by foreign prelates. Since Christianity began as largely a "grass-roots" effort in Korea, it naturally spread more quickly through the population than it would if it had originated with outsiders with no initial popular support.

Hangul, literacy, and education

Hangul, a phonemic Korean alphabet invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of King Sejong ,[15][16] was little used for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of Classical Chinese (a position similar to that of Latin in Europe). However, true to its academic legacy, the Catholic church became the first Korean organization to recognize officially the value of using Hangul, and Bishop Berneux mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it.[17][18] Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, predominantly used the Korean language and the easily-learned Hangul script. This combination of factors not only resulted in a sharp rise in the overall literacy rate, but also enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who predominantly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels appeared in Hangul; doctrinal books such as the Jugyo Yoji (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic hymnary was printed around 1800.

John Ross, a Scottish Presbyterian missionary in Manchuria completed his translation of the Bible into Korean in 1887 and Protestant leaders immediately began emphasizing its mass-circulation. In addition, they established the first modern educational institutions in Korea.[19] The Presbyterian Paichai School (배재고등학교) for boys was founded in 1885, and the Methodist Ewha School (이화여자고등학교) for girls (later to become Ewha Womans University) followed in 1886. These, and similar schools established soon afterwards, facilitated the rapid expansion of Protestantism among the common people, and in time Protestants surpassed Catholics as the largest Christian group in Korea. As a side effect during this period, female literacy rose sharply, since women had previously been excluded from the educational system.[20]

Parallels in Korean tradition

The spread of Christianity in Korea was aided by the similarity of certain Christian doctrines with a number of Korean traditions. Unlike prevailing Chinese and Japanese religions of the time, Shamanist Koreans had an essentially monotheistic concept of a Creator-God,[21] whom they called Hwan-in or Hanal-nim (하날님) (later also Haneul-nim, 하늘님/하느님, or Haneu-nim, 하나님). According to an ancient myth, Hwan-in had a son named Hwan-ung (환웅) who, in turn, had fathered a human son named Tangun in 2333 BC.[22][23][24] According to the story, Tangun founded the Korean nation and taught his people the elements of civilization during his thousand-year reign.[25] There are several variants of this myth, one of which depicts Tangun as having been mothered by a virgin[26]. Some modern theologians have even attempted to explain the Christian concept of the Trinity in terms of the three divine characters in the Tangun myth.[27] These parallels psychologically prepared the Korean people to accept various Christian teachings, such as the incarnation of Jesus.

Identification with Korean nationalism

One of the most important factors leading to widespread acceptance of Christianity in Korea was the identification that many Christians forged with the cause of Korean nationalism during the Japanese occupation of 1905 through 1945. During this period, seven million Koreans were exiled or deported[28] and a systematic campaign of cultural assimilation was attempted. In 1938, even use of the Korean language was prohibited.[29] However, the distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. Furthermore, while the subsequent constitution of South Korea guarantees freedom of religion as well as separation of church and state, the South Korean government has been favorable overall to Christianity, regarding the religion as an ideological bulwark against Communism.

On 1 March 1919, an assembly of thirty-three religious and professional leaders known as the "March 1 Movement" passed a Declaration of Independence. Although organized by leaders of the Chondogyo (천도교) religion, fifteen of the thirty-three signatories happened to be Protestants[30], and many of them were subsequently imprisoned. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called "Ulmindan" (울민단) (Righteous People's Army)[31] was founded, and a China-based government-in-exile was established by Syngman Rhee (이승만), a Methodist.[32]

Christianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when Christians refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor, which was required by law in the 1930s.[33][34] Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation. This show of resistance to the occupying nation enabled Koreans to see past the foreign origins of Christianity and accept it as their own.

Minjung theology

Main article: Minjung theology

The Christian concept of individual worth has also found expression in a lengthy struggle for human rights and democracy in Korea. In recent years, this struggle has taken the form of Minjung theology. Minjung theology is based on the "image of God" concept expressed in Genesis 1:26-27, but also incorporates the traditional Korean feeling of han, a word that has no exact English translation, but that denotes a sense of inconsolable pain and utter helplessness. Minjung theology depicts commoners in Korean history as the rightful masters of their own destiny. Two of the country's best known political leaders, Kim Young-sam, a Presbyterian, and Kim Dae-jung, a Roman Catholic, subscribe to Minjung theology.[35] Both men spent decades opposing military governments in South Korea and were frequently imprisoned as a result, and both also served terms as President of the Republic after democracy was restored in 1988.

One manifestation of Minjung theology in the final years of the Park Chung-hee regime (1961-1979) was the rise of several Christian social missions, such as the Catholic Farmers Movement and the Protestant Urban Industrial Mission, which campaigned for better wages and working conditions for laborers. The military government imprisoned many of their leaders because it considered the movement a threat to social stability, and their struggle coincided with a period of popular unrest which culminated in the assassination of President Park on October 26, 1979,[36]. However, even this period of turmoil affected the growth of Christianity to the degree that Koreans saw it as a source of stability in a difficult time.

Social change

Many Korean Christians believe that their values have had a significant positive effect on various social relationships. Traditional Korean society was hierarchically arranged according to Confucian principles under the semi-divine emperor. Women had no social rights,[37] children were totally subservient to their parents,[38] and individuals had no rights except as defined by the overall social system. This structure was radically challenged by the Christian teaching that all men are created in the image of God and thus that every individual has implicit worth. Closely aligned to this concept is an emphasis on the right to own private property.[39]

Christians regarded the emperor as a mere man who was as much under God's authority as were his subjects,[40] and Christian values also favored the social emancipation of women and children.[41][42] The church permitted the remarriage of widows (not traditionally allowed in East Asian societies), prohibited concubinage and polygamy, and forbade cruelty to or desertion of wives.citation needed Christian parents were taught to regard their children as gifts from God, and were required to educate them.[43] Arranged child marriages and the neglect of daughters (who were often regarded as less desirable than sons in Asian culture) were prohibited.citation needed These changes were judged as favourable by many Koreans, who associated them with Christianity, and many became Christians as a result.

Economic success

South Korea's rapid economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s is usually credited to the policy of export-oriented industrialization led by Park Chung-hee (박정희), who was a devout Buddhist. But many South Korean Christians view their religious faith as a factor in the country's dramatic economic growth over the past three decades, believing that its success and prosperity are indications of God's blessing. It is, of course, difficult to isolate this factor from the effects of other influences such as indigenous cultural values and work ethic, a strong alliance with the United States, and the infusion of foreign capital (economics).

A 2003 study by economists Robert J. Barro and Rachel McCleary [44] suggests that societies with high levels of belief in heaven and low levels of church attendance also exhibit high rates of economic growth. Barro and McCleary's model has been influential in subsequent scholarship and, to some observers [45] [46], it supports the belief that Christianity has played a major role in South Korea's economic success. The study has also been criticised by scholars such as Durlauf, Kortellos, and Tan (2006), who argue on statistical grounds that there is little evidence connecting religion and economic growth either directly or indirectly. [47]

Any research, however, no matter which side of the issue it supports, is irrelevant to the fact that the confidence of South Korean Christians in the social and economic benefits of their faith has been a factor in the spread of Christianity in South Korea. There is much appreciation in South Korea for the statistical growth, impressive organization, and attractive buildings [48] that are enjoyed by many Christian groups. People quite naturally want to associate themselves with prosperity and success, and insofar as they see Christianity as the source of those things, they will be more likely to accept it as an important influence in their lives.

Controversies

Despite the general positive environment for Christian activity in South Korea, some church leaders have been criticized for various issues. For example, some have allegedly had extramarital affairs with members of their churches. One such incident was brought to public attention on 1 December 2003, when Jang Hyo-Hee, the leader of the Christian Council of Korea (한국기독교총연합회), Korea's largest Christian organization, jumped to his death from an office block. This was said to have happened because the husband of a woman with whom Jang was allegedly having an affair was trying to enter the room where they had been together.

There also have been cases of leaders of large churches passing the leadership of their churches to their sons, an action that is considered inappropriate by many Christians. In addition, the ownership of the church itself is sometimes changed from one such leader to another, like any other business. Among the most extreme cases, Kim Hong-Do, Chief Pastor of Kumran Church at Mangwoo-dong, Seoul, was indicted on charges of fraud and embezzlement in a case involving $3.2 billion on 28 April 2006.citation needed He attempted to transfer leadership of his church to his son, who currently serves as Associate Pastor.citation needed

Some extreme fundamentalist Christians have been accused of inflicting damage on Buddhist temples and statues.6 In one case, fundamentalist Christians vandalized a statue of Dangun, the mythic founder of the Korean nation 7.

Looking ahead

South Korea's transition from forty years of authoritarianism (interrupted only once, in the short-lived Second Republic (1960-1961)[49] to a more liberal, democratic regime in 1988 left South Korea's churches facing a new challenge. Their strong stand for human rights and democracy had always been a significant part of their appeal to the Korean population, and had helped facilitate the exponential growth of many churches in the 1970s and early 1980s.citation needed With the advent of democracy, which made Christians a part of the mainstream as never before, many Christians feel that the church had become a victim of its own success, as freedom and prosperity lead to widespread complacency and loss of the churches' incisiveness. Church growth tapered off for the first time in decades. One government census puts the number of Protestants at 623,072 (1960), 10,312,813 (1990), and 8,620,000 (2005).citation needed Each year over 3,000 small churches are closed.citation needed In the same period that Christianity has experienced some decline in South Korea, there has been a strong rise in interest in new religions and in Buddhism.citation needed

In the early years of the twenty-first century, however, many Christians have expressed a renewed determination to evangelize the nation, with the bold goal of establishing the Korean Peninsula as a bastion of Christianity on the Asian mainland.citation needed This vision encompasses North Korea so, given the current economic and political instability in North Korea, South Korean churches are developing contingency plans to mobilize both spiritual and humanitarian resources to aid the North.citation needed

See also

Sources

Numbered references

  1. ^ Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year
  2. ^ 교회개혁의 새로운 지평을 열어갑니다. 뉴스앤조이
  3. ^ Error Occurred While Processing Request
  4. ^ Julia Festival, Kozushima, Tokyo Metropolitan Government
  5. ^ Evangelical Missions Quarterly - Persecution: A Biblical and Personal Reflection
  6. ^ Research and Reflections by Frank M. Tedesco
  7. ^ IHT: Religious peace threatened in South Korea
  1. ^  Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation World, Carlisle, Cumbria, and Waynesboro, GA., 2001, pp. 387-390.
  2. ^  CHOI Suk-woo, 'Korean Catholicism Yesterday and Today', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 4.
  3. ^  KIM Han-sik, 'The Influence of Christianity', Korean Journal XXIII, 12, December 1983, p. 5.
  4. ^  Ibid., pp. 6-7.
  5. ^  Ibid., p. 6.
  6. ^  KIM Ok-hy, 'Women in the History of Catholicism in Korea', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 30.
  7. ^  CHOI Suk-Woo, pp. 5-6.
  8. ^  National Unification Board, The Identity of the Korean People, Seoul, 1983, pp. 132-136.
  9. ^  Seoul International Publishing House, Focus on Korea, Korean History, Seoul, 1983, pp. 7-8.
  10. ^  Seoul International Publishing House, Focus on Korea, Korean History, Seoul, 1983, pp. 7-8.
  11. ^  The Identity of the Korean People, pp. 132-136.
  12. ^  Ilyon, tr. HA Tae-hung and Grafton K. Minz, Samguk Yusa, Seoul 1972, pp. 32-33.
  13. ^  Marguerite Johnson, 'The Culture', in Pico Iyer (ed.) 'An Ancient Nation on the Eve of a Modern Spectacle: SOUTH KOREA', Time CXXXII, 10, 5 September 1988, p. 48.
  14. ^  Ibid., p. 48.
  15. ^  Focus on Korea, pp. 7-8.
  16. ^  CHO Kwang, 'The Meaning of Catholicism in Korean History', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, pp. 20-21.
  17. ^  Colin Whittaker, Korea Miracle, Eastbourne, 1988, p. 133.
  18. ^  Andrew C. Nah, A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History, Seoul, 1983, p. 81.
  19. ^  Whittaker, p. 62.
  20. ^  Ibid., p. 65.
  21. ^  Ibid., p. 63.
  22. ^  CHOI Suk-woo, p. 10.
  23. ^  Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 23, Danbury, Conn., 1988, p. 464.
  24. ^  CHO Kwang, p. 11.
  25. ^  Whittaker, p. 65.
  26. ^  Merit Students Encyclopedia, Vol. 10, New York and London, 1980, p. 440.
  27. ^  Whittaker, p. 34.
  28. ^  CHO Kwang, pp. 20-21.
  29. ^  Whittaker, p. 40.
  30. ^  KIM Ok-hy, p. 34.
  31. ^  CHO Kwang, pp. 16-18.
  32. ^  Ibid., pp. 18-19.
  33. ^  KIM Han-sik, pp. 11-12.
  34. ^  CHOI Suk-woo, p. 7.
  35. ^  CHO Kwang, pp. 16-18.
  36. ^  Ibid., pp. 18-19.
  37. ^  Ibid., pp. 16-19.
  38. ^  Michael Lee, 'Korean Churches Pursue Social and Political Justice', in Brian Heavy (Ed.), Accent III, 3 Auckland, May 1988, pp. 19-20.
  39. ^  Kessing's Contemporary Archives, London, 25 April 1980, p. 30216.
  40. ^  J. Earnest Fisher, Pioneers of Modern Korea, Seoul, 1977, pp. 65-74.

See Frank Tedesco's "Questions for Buddhist and Christian Cooperation in South Korea" in Buddhist-Christian Studies 17 (1997). (about the military officers forcing church attendance)

Bibliography

External links

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Christianity in Asia
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